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Low water use animals/breeds

Use livestock breeds that are able to survive with less water. May involve cross-breeding with local anmal species that are more tolerant to drought.

Advantages / Benefits
Reduces chances of livestock losses during drought
Stability of income
Disadvantages
Require change of herd
May require new knowledge about different breeds
Who involved
Farmers
Research Institutes
Government
Costs
Variable depending on availability of breeds
Information sources
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190052816300281
Feasibility
Feasible when breeds are available

Stockpile fodder

Store cut hay for times when grazing fodder is absent

Advantages / Benefits
Reduces chances of livestock losses during drought
Stability of income
Disadvantages
Requires space to store in dry location
May require new machinery
Who involved
Farmers
Costs
Variable depending on availablity of machinery and storage
Information sources
http://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook/production-resources/mo…
Feasibility
Feasible when abundant hay is available and when it can be harvested and baled

Forage reserves

Areas of rangeland and grazing systems are kept aside as reserves during periods of low fodder availability

Advantages / Benefits
Reduces chances of livestock losses during drought
Stability of income
Disadvantages
Requires fencing and additional water points
Who involved
Farmers
Costs
Variable depending on land, fencing and labour availability
Feasibility
Feasible in low density systems with reseources availble to set aside

Shelterbelts

Linear plantings of trees and shrubs in agriculrual systems, espcially intensively cropped land devoid of trees and shrubs

Advantages / Benefits
Protects soil, improves air and water quality, and provides shade and shelter to livestock to reduce heat stress
Disadvantages
Requires portion of farm land to be removed from production
Initial planting may need to be protected from livestock using fences or tree guards
Who involved
Farmers
Costs
Variable depending on design and fencing requirements
Information sources
http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/science-and-innovation/agricultural-practices/agrofore…
Evidence of success
In Ghana, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture has introduced drought-resistant and early maturing maize varieties to farmers in the Dormaa Central Municipality of Brong-Ahafo Region to help minimise the effect of climate change on farming activities in the area (http://citifmonline.com/2017/12/02/mofa-introduces-drought-resistant-early-maturing-crop-varieties)
Feasibility
Feasible where there is land available to set aside for shelterbelt planting

Early maturing crop varieties

Eearly maturing crop varieties can yield a positive harvest within three months of planting to protect farmers in case of low rainfall or drought

Advantages / Benefits
Can help minimize the effect of climate change on farming activities affected by shortened rainfall patterns, erratic rainfalls or drought
Crops maturing early can ensure quick economic return on the harvest
resistance to cracking of fruit
harvest has the same size as a standard variety, good aesthetics and safety during transportation
Disadvantages
Switching to early maturing crop varieties may require government subsidies
crops planted early can be fooded
Crops have low resistance to pathogens
Who involved
Government, farmers
Costs
Vary
Information sources
https://neweralive.na/posts/farmers-advised-plant-early-maturing-crops
Evidence of success
In Busia County (Kenya), farmers managed to overcome rain failure through the use of drought tolerant crops such as: sorghum, millets and pigeon pea, cowpea and green gram (https://www.ilri.org/node/40417)
Feasibility
When shortened rain season is predicted

Water efficient, drought tolerant crop varieties

Drought tolerant crops are species which can survive for long periods of time with little amounts or no water.

Advantages / Benefits
Higher yields
ease hunger
food security
Disadvantages
Low awareness
costs
inflexible consumption habits
Who involved
Farmers
private sector
NGOs
governments
Costs
Vary
Information sources
http://ucanr.edu/sites/scmg/files/183771.pdf
Evidence of success
Crop insurance in the Sahel (https://www.allianz.com/en_GB/press/extra/knowledge/finance/120402-the-price-of-dust-crop-insurance-in-the-sahel.html)

Crop insurance systems

Crop insurance refers to an insurance which insures farmers and crop producers against their loss of crops due to natural disasters, such as hail, drought and floods

Advantages / Benefits
Stability in income
Minimal debts
Technological advancement
Yield protection
Disadvantages
Payments not always correlated with the loss
Preference of one kind of crop causing loss of biodiversity
Who involved
Farmers
Unions
Consortia
Insurance providers
Costs
Diiffers according to the insurance providers
Information sources
http://www.fao.org/3/a-y5996e.pdf
Feasibility
In areas where droughts are always associated with reduced harvest

Proper fertilisation

Applying appropriate rates of fertiliser given available soil water, rainfall and crop nutrient requirements

Advantages / Benefits
Proper fertilization will promote healthy plant growth and efficient moisture utilization, essential for high yields in normal and dry years
Disadvantages
None
Who involved
Farmers
Costs
Low
Information sources
http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5146e/y5146e09.htm
http://nasdonline.org/static_content/documents/1987/d001465.pdf
Feasibility
In any cropping system

No-till/conservation agriculture

Cropping systems that do not distrurb (or till) the soil

Advantages / Benefits
Increases water infiltration, retention of organic matter, cycling of nutrients and biological diversity in soil
Reduces soil erosion
Can increase profitability of cropping systems
Disadvantages
Requires new equipment, and increased weed control
Who involved
Farmers
Costs
Low
Information sources
http://www.act-africa.org
Feasibility
In any cropping system

Soil mulching

Leaving crop residues in situ to cover the soil and reduce water loss from evaporation

Advantages / Benefits
Reduces soil erosion and soil water evaporation
Disadvantages
Requires relatively high residue cover to be effective
Who involved
Farmers
Costs
Low
Information sources
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13593-015-0283-4#Sec12
Evidence of success
EC-JRC provides publicly available daily soil moisture maps of Europe; daily soil moisture anomaly maps of Europe; and daily maps of the forecasted topsoil moisture development in Europe (https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/external/daily-soil-moisture-of-europe)
Feasibility
In any cropping system

Soil moisture probes

Platforms able to provide information and data on the status of soil

Advantages / Benefits
Accuracy
Ability to read multiple soil parameters
Continuous measurement's at the same location
Low cost
Disadvantages
Require labor and periodic service
Slow response to drastic changes in soil content
Who involved
Private sector companies
farmers
Research institutions
Evidence of success
In Ethiopia, government is working together with regional institutions, public and private sector partners and international development programs to restore productivity to deforested and degraded landscapes, mostly through restoring forests and planting trees on agricultural land. (http://www.wri.org/our-work/project/african-restoration-100)

Land restoration

Land restoration or rehabilitation is the process of ecological restoration of a site to a natural landscape and habitat, safe for humans, wildlife, and plant communities

Advantages / Benefits
Maintain biodiversity
Increases soil productivity
Creates jobs
Food supplies are enhanced
Disadvantages
Some ecosystems require long time to restore
Small fraction of land continue to be degraded in restored ecosystems
Hard for the community to commit to land restoration
Information sources
https://goodlifepermaculture.com.au/land-regeneration-in-action/
Evidence of success
Excellent Development and its partner in southeast Kenya, the Africa Sand Dam Foundation (ASDF), work closely with community self-help groups over a number of years to build sand dams and other rainwater harvesting systems (https://www.excellentdevelopment.com/news/how-sand-dams-are-changing-the-quality-of-life-in-rural-drylands)
Feasibility
In areas with degraded land

Sand dams

Sand dams are a simple, low-cost and low-maintenance, replicable rainwater harvesting technology. They provide a clean, local water supply for domestic and farming use and are suited to semi-arid areas of the world

Advantages / Benefits
Combat desertification by recharging groundwater and creating opportunity for sustainable land management
Mitigate climate change by creating water security and the time to practice climate-smart agriculture
Reduce conflict by increasing access to water for people and livestock Support disaster resilience by creating a buffer against drought and enabling vulnerable people to improve food production
Enable the installation of shallow wells producing safe drinking water
Disadvantages
When sand dams were relatively unknown and under-utilized, villagers used to spend hours fetching water, hence not getting enough time to grow food
Predictable rain had also made it difficult for farmers to plan sowing and harvesting of crops
Who involved
Local communities
NGOs
Evidence of success
WASTEREUSE project implemented in Spain and Italy measures can be replicated in other Mediterranean countries) developed and demonstrated best practices for the use of agricultural wastes for irrigation and fertilisation of crops (http://www.wastereuse.eu) Converting farm waste into biogas fuel: green energy plant provides manure management solution for Czech piggeries (http://www.fao.org/family-farming/detail/en/c/292263/)
Feasibility
In all areas where there is a need to provide a clean, local water supply for domestic and farming

Promotion of farm waste recycling and re-use

Increases the recycling of water and nutrients, through the sustainable use of agricultural waste. Agricultural waste can also come from harvest and therefore transformed into biogas.

Advantages / Benefits
Significant reduction of harmful wastes disposed in the environment
Recycling of elements and water in agriculture which in turn, will reduce production cost and contribute to the increase in products competiveness and profits
Protection of renewable and non-renewable resources (soil, aquatic bodies, phosphoric minerals) through elements recycling
Disadvantages
Lack of interest from stakeholders
lack of detailed regulations on agricultural waste management for human health and environmental protection
lack of incentives for investing into agricultural waste management
Who involved
MoFA, NGOs, rural communities, food retailers, waste management companies, water companies, farmers, agricultural manufacturers, distributors and merchants
Costs
Vary
Information sources
https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/recycling-on-semisubsistence-farms-hous…
http://www.wseas.us/e-library/conferences/2012/Zlin/ENAGROBIO/ENAGROBIO-36.pdf
Evidence of success
A study on the value of women's indigenous knowledge in food processing and preservation for achieving household food security in rural Sudan (http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/jfr/article/view/14714)
Feasibility
Where cultivated land suffers from desertification, mainly due to intensive agriculture, climatic conditions, wildfires, increased soil salinity, and water shortages. Drought damaged crops are the main sorce of farm waste.

Innovative indigenous and gender-balanced knowledge for agriculture

Women are often responsible for food processing and storage, collecting of water and firewood and for generating incomes for subsistence, managing available resources by using indigenous knowledge to secure food supplies for their households.

Advantages / Benefits
Rural women as local level experts manage to achieve sustainable food security at household levels, with practical, efficient and economic solutions based on indigenous knowledge
Disadvantages
Lack of policies that promote the role of women as holders of traditional knowledge that can help achieve food security
Who involved
Rural women, policymakers
Information sources
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282705113_Women%27s_Role_in_Household_…
Evidence of success
In Madagascar, innovative solutions such as digital microfinance and agricultural micro-insurance are being developed to support farmers. They include digital microfinance or agricultural micro-insurance based on meteorological data (https://ideas4development.org/en/madagascar-agricultural-microcredit-digital-microfinance)
Feasibility
In rural areas where women represent the majority of the rural population (especially where migration has left them as head of households) and are extensively involved in agricultural activities as are the dominant livelihood feature, the indigenous and gender-balanced knowledge is particularly important during seasonal food shortage or major stress periods such as droughts

New finance and credit schemes (e.g. microcredit)

A small financial loan made to poverty-stricken individuals seeking to start their own business. This type of loan typically does not exceed a couple hundred dollars, so an impoverished individual can not solely depend on this type of loan to fund their business. Also called micro loan

Advantages / Benefits
It allows people to better provide for their families
It gives people access to credit
It provides families with an opportunity to provide an education to their children
It can create jobs
It is sustainable
It encourages people to save
Disadvantages
Interest rates might be high
It can lead to a debt trap
Microcredit does not improve health and education
Who involved
Microcredit providers
Farmers
Banks
NGOs
Costs
Differs according to the microcredit scheme in place
Information sources
http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/pubs/2013microfinanceinafrica.pdf
Evidence of success
World Food Programme Food Security Monitoring System (https://www.wfp.org/food-security/assessments/food-security-monitoring-system)
Feasibility
In areas with a need to reduce poverty and social exclusion caused by drought

Improved food security risk monitoring

Tracks changes in people's food security situations to alert the humanitarian community when a situation deteriorates to ensure that assistance can be provided in a timely and appropriate way

Advantages / Benefits
A comprehensive food security risk analysis and monitoring system should provide information that can help answer questions such as: who are the food insecure and vulnerable
where they live
why they are food insecure and vulnerable
what intervention options are most appropriate
Disadvantages
N
A
Who involved
Governments
humanitarian organizations
Costs
Vary
Information sources
http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/29282/InTech-Improving_food_security_risk_manage…
Evidence of success
The Government of Yemen, in collaboration with The World Bank, implemented the ground water conservation project in 10 of the 13 catchments in the country, with focus on sub-catchments where aquifer depletion rate was most critical (https://www.waterscarcitysolutions.org/groundwater-conservation)
Feasibility
Improves the effectiveness of humanitarian decision- making

Groundwater management and conservation

Groundwater management means management of groundwater sub-basins to provide for multiple long-term benefits without resulting in or aggravating conditions that cause significant economic, social, or environmental impacts, such as long-term overdraft, land subsidence, or damage to ecosystems

Advantages / Benefits
Ground water generally does not get polluted Since bore well is closed, no risk of getting contaminated
Since it is closed no danger of children or animals falling into it
Temperature of deep water remains stable
It feels cool in summer and warm in winter
Since bore wells are deep, chances of water remaining available in summer are higher
Disadvantages
Managing groundwater requires a lot of effort
Polluted rainwater
Who involved
Local water councils
Farmers
Non-governmental organization (NGOs)s
Farmers
Information sources
http://re.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/Indigenous%20water%20conservation…
Evidence of success
The small-scale irrigation project in Colombia financed by the World Bak will provide supplementary irrigation for about 43,000 farmers over a six-year period by establishing about 850 small irrigation schemes (http://projects.worldbank.org/P006860/small-scale-irrigation-project?lang=en)
Feasibility
In all water-stressed semi-arid areas with limited yearly rainfall supply and lack of perennial streams

Promotion of water-saving technologies in irrigation

Improved water-saving technologies include sprinkler systems, micro and drip irrigation, flood irrigation andf urrow-basinirrigation. Small-scale irrigation is most successful when managed and controlled by farmers who have access to independent water sources, it is best suited for small-scale farmers seeking to optimize production by minimizing inputs and risks

Advantages / Benefits
Saves water
lowers inputs and risks
Energy savings by using less energy for heating, pumping, and treating water
Financial savings result from decreased water use and service costs
Various environmental benefits include increased water availability for local streams, wetlands and their natural inhabitants, and fewer water projects
Positive publicity stemming from environmental protection efforts
Disadvantages
Lack of technical knowledge among farmers
water saving is not always a priority for farmers
the cost of development may be prohibitive
technologies and equipment best suited for small-scal farms not always available
lack of access to maintenance and spare parts
lack of training for farmers
Who involved
Local businesses (design and manufacture), farmers, government, financing institutions
Costs
Vary
Information sources
http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7314e/w7314e0p.htm
Feasibility
Successful when farmers' requirements are accessed participatively and then a technology which suits those requirements is proposed

Promotion of domestic and commercial water-saving technologies

Water saving technologies in domestic and commercial setting include low flow taps and showerheads, water efficient appliances, low water use machinery. Water efficient technologies help reduce consumptive water use during times of water shortages

Advantages / Benefits
Saves water and can reduce water costs to domestic and commercial users
Disadvantages
New technologies can be expensive and return on investment may take time to be realised
Who involved
Civil society
Private companies
Government
Costs
Vary
Information sources
https://sswm.info/water-nutrient-cycle/water-use/hardwares/optimisation-water-u…
Feasibility
Successful when there incentives offered to replace existing technologies with more water efficient options

Monitoring and metering water resources

Implementing water meters and water monitoring systems to measure the extraction of water from surface water and ground water resources. Aim is measure consumption of water which is the first step to recognising the value of the water resource and reducing consumption.

Advantages / Benefits
Saves water
Suitable for all water resources - irrigation, domestic, industrial
Disadvantages
Metering and monitoring resources can be expensive and require technical capacity to maintain
Who involved
Farmers, private sector, governments
Costs
Variable
Information sources
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29099
Feasibility
Feasible where ground and surface water resources are accessed

Teaching water conservation in schools

Develop and implement water conservation education into school curricula at priamry and secondary levels.

Advantages / Benefits
Very low cost way to conserve water during periods of shortage or where water resources are highly constrained
Disadvantages
Relies on voluntary actions
Who involved
Civil society
Government
Costs
Very low
Information sources
https://www.niwater.com/sitefiles/resources/pdf/h20-worksheet.pdf
https://www.ourwatermatters.ca/files/File/WaterConservation/Water_Conservation_…
Feasibility
Feasible in all schools

Water pricing and economic incentives to reduce use

Put a price on water and create a market to turn water into a commodity with economic value

Advantages / Benefits
Creates an economic incentive to conserve water use
Disadvantages
May not be equitable and may disadvantage the poor Requires metering infratrure and policing to reduce water theft
Who involved
Governments
private sector
Costs
Variable
Feasibility
Feasible where water supply infrastructure is in place to meter and monitor water use.

Increase capacity of exisiting water storages

Expand water storages such as dams by raising height of dam walls, adding storage tanks to exisiting rainwater harvesting infrastructure.

Advantages / Benefits
Increases water supply
Disadvantages
Can be expensive
Who involved
Governments
private sector
Costs
Vary
Evidence of success
A complete rainwater harvesting system in Kiribati allowed community members to have easy access to clean water and larger storage tanks permitted large amounts of water to be available during times of drought (http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/03/21/adapting-to-life-in-climate-change-hit-kiribati)
Feasibility
Feasible where the exisiting water storages have potential to be expanded