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Teaching water conservation in schools

Develop and implement water conservation education into school curricula at priamry and secondary levels.

Advantages / Benefits
Very low cost way to conserve water during periods of shortage or where water resources are highly constrained
Disadvantages
Relies on voluntary actions
Who involved
Civil society
Government
Costs
Very low
Information sources
https://www.niwater.com/sitefiles/resources/pdf/h20-worksheet.pdf
https://www.ourwatermatters.ca/files/File/WaterConservation/Water_Conservation_…
Feasibility
Feasible in all schools

Water pricing and economic incentives to reduce use

Put a price on water and create a market to turn water into a commodity with economic value

Advantages / Benefits
Creates an economic incentive to conserve water use
Disadvantages
May not be equitable and may disadvantage the poor Requires metering infratrure and policing to reduce water theft
Who involved
Governments
private sector
Costs
Variable
Feasibility
Feasible where water supply infrastructure is in place to meter and monitor water use.

Increase capacity of exisiting water storages

Expand water storages such as dams by raising height of dam walls, adding storage tanks to exisiting rainwater harvesting infrastructure.

Advantages / Benefits
Increases water supply
Disadvantages
Can be expensive
Who involved
Governments
private sector
Costs
Vary
Evidence of success
A complete rainwater harvesting system in Kiribati allowed community members to have easy access to clean water and larger storage tanks permitted large amounts of water to be available during times of drought (http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/03/21/adapting-to-life-in-climate-change-hit-kiribati)
Feasibility
Feasible where the exisiting water storages have potential to be expanded

Domestic rainwater harvesting structures

Rain water harvesting is a technique for collection and storage of rain water in surface (storage tanks) or sub-surface aquifer before it is lost as surface runoff

Advantages / Benefits
Easy to maintain
Reduces water bills
Suitable for irrigation
Reduces demand on groundwater
Reduces soil erosion
Disadvantages
Unpredictable rainfall
Initial high cost
Regular maintenance
Storage limits
Who involved
Government
NGOs
Private companies
Costs
Calculating the cost of setting up a rainwater harvesting system can be difficult as it depends on a range of factors apart from the initial outlay for the tank and pump system
Information sources
https://rainharvesting.com.au
Evidence of success
NEWater process In Singapore recycles treated used water into ultra-clean, high-grade reclaimed water, cushioning the country's water supply against dry weather and moving Singapore towards water sustainability (https://www.pub.gov.sg/watersupply/fournationaltaps/newater); Decentralized water treatment kiosks bring clean and affordable water to poor communities in India, South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa (https://www.innovationpolicyplatform.org/system/files/01%20WASH%20BMI_Water%20ATM_June1.pdf)
Feasibility
In all areas where rainwater can be harvested

Back-up water supply infrastructure – e.g. RO units

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification technology that uses a semipermeable membrane to remove pathogens (bacteria, viruses); agrochemicals, chloride, organic matter, industrial waste, chemicals, heavy metals, toxins, pesticides, minerals and particles from drinking water. An RO unit is a self-contained water treatment system.

Advantages / Benefits
Provides a safe and sustainable way to ensure the supply of clean drinking water
Disadvantages
High start-up costs
Requires access to electricity
Involves handling of effluent water
Requires frequent back-flushing and replacement of filters
Who involved
Government, NGOs, humanitarian organizations
Costs
The cost varies from $50 to $5,000 depending on the quality and capacity of the system. Most people’s needs can be served by a system that costs $150 to $500 (https://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/nr/2005/FS0510.pdf)
Information sources
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1477/7e52b5efa8ff94e529051b24fad15808df6a.pdf
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3617848/
Evidence of success
Water supply and sanitation project in Sri Lanka involving 800+ schools (http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTWAT/Resources/4602122-1213366294492/5106220-1234469721549/36.2_SRI_LANKA.pdf); In Australia, The Rainwater Tanks in Schools project assisted all 22 primary and secondary schools in the Kogarah area to increase the efficiency of water use and install rainwater tanks to reduce potable water use in toilet flushing and irrigating school gardens (https://www.iwra.org/congress/2008/resource/authors/abs636_article.pdf)
Feasibility
One of the best options in most countries to generate potable water for rural/remote communties

Improved water supply to schools (large concrete tanks and wells)

Water tanks are installed to collect rainwater andincrease the efficiency of water use/reduce potable water use in toilet flushing and irrigation. These approaches place a major emphasis on the improvement of sanitation facilities, access to safe and sufficient water for drinking, food preparation, hand washing, laundering, use of flush toilets, toilet and other cleaning, and watering the school gardens.

Advantages / Benefits
Improved health, reduced medical expenses, enhanced productivity
Disadvantages
Construction and maintenance costs can be high
Who involved
Central Government
Local Government
Schools
Community
Civil Society
Private Sector
Costs
Vary
Information sources
https://www.wsp.org/Hygiene-Sanitation-Water-Toolkit/BasicPrinciples/WaterSuppl…
Evidence of success
Water quality monitoring project in India details achievements and constraints (https://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/envpdf/pap_wasess5a2india.pdf)
Feasibility
While most schools already have access to some kind of water source, it may provide insufficient and/or unsafe water, or may be situated in an inappropriate location

Better ground/surface water monitoring systems

A range of methods are used to test water quality, which may either be laboratory-based assessments or field test kits. Laboratory-based assessments are required when accurate detection of specific compounds must be completed. These analyses require expensive equipment at central laboratories. Field kit tests offer a useful alternative that provides onsite water monitoring. These kits are generally used for basic analysis such as water temperature, transparency and pH.

Advantages / Benefits
Improves livelihood security, reduces health risks and vulnerability in communities
Disadvantages
Existing methods suffer from high costs, complexity of use and inability to function onsite and in real time
Who involved
Government
research institutions
NGOs
Costs
Field based tests may vary from as low as $0.5 up to $11.3
Information sources
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4600167/
Evidence of success
An initiative to collect moisture from the thick sea mist around Lima represents an inventive, cost-effective solution to the ever-expanding Peruvian capital’s shortage of water (https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2012/sep/19/peru-fog-catchers-water-supplies)
Feasibility
Lab analyses require sample collection which can be a problem in developing countries if the sampling location is in a remote area, while field kits may not be suitable for detection of specific contaminants by onsite tests is however more difficult.

Fog harvesting

Fog harvesting refers to the collection of water from fog using large pieces of vertical canvas to make the fog droplets flow down towards a trough under the canvas, known as a fog fence

Advantages / Benefits
Collection systems are easy to build, no energy is needed to collect or transport water, maintenance and repair are minimal and the cost is relatively low
Disadvantages
Community participation is required for success,collection sites can be a considerable distance from the community, water may not meet quality requirements for drinking water quality, building the site could change the landscape
Who involved
Governments
NGOs
Local communities
Farmers
Costs
A collection site in northern Chile that is 48 meters squared (517 feet squared) had a set-up cost of about $378. A site in Peru had a set-up cost of about $90 per meter squared. A 48 meter squared site in Peru would cost about $4,320.
Information sources
https://watersustainabilityandfogwater.wordpress.com/fog-catchers-and-how-to-ma…
Evidence of success
Remote village of Gidewari in Tanzania finds a solar power solution to its water problem: http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/06/06/for-this-remote-village-of-gidewari-a-solar-power-solution-to-its-water-problem
Feasibility
In places with: frequent fog occurrence; High fog water content; Altitude between 400 m to 1200 m Limited distance from coast (coastal areas)

Solar powered groundwater pumps

A solar-powered pump runs on electricity generated by photovoltaic panels or the radiated thermal energy available from collected sunlight as opposed to grid electricity or diesel run water pumps

Advantages / Benefits
Low maintenance
No fuel costs or spills
Easy to install
Simple and reliable
Unattended operation
System can be made to be mobile
Disadvantages
Potentially high initial costs
Lower output in cloudy weather
Must have sufficient sun exposure between 9 AM and 3 PM
Who involved
Solar companies
Water companies
Energy companies
Government and NGOs
Information sources
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GIeLeJ6cc-A
Feasibility
The technology is feasible in areas with low energy infrastructures where water is present in underground aquifers

Reducing losses in water supply infrastructure

Modernisation and improvement in water supply infrastructure to repair and replace aging infrasrtucture that is leaking and inefficient

Advantages / Benefits
Can save significant water in cases where infrastructure is very old and inefficient
Disadvantages
Potentially high infrastructure costs
Who involved
Private companies
Governments
Costs
Vary
Feasibility
Feasible where there are known leaks and losses from exisiting water suply infrastructre

Groundwater recharge

Pump water back into depleted groundwater reserves or use natural recharge processes. Can be done using treated wastewater

Advantages / Benefits
Provides additional water sources during drought
Provides an additional way of storing water when water availability is high
Aquifers also offer a sustainable water treatment option
Disadvantages
Potentially high infrastructure costs
Who involved
Private companies
Governments
Costs
High
Evidence of success
Mapping drought vulnerability in East Azerbaijan Province. University of Theran: data from sixteen hydrological stations have been collected to create a drought vulnerability map. Such map has been developed by following six precipitation parameters provided by the hydrological stations (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287358352_MAPPING_REGIONAL_DROUGHT_VULNERABILITY_A_CASE_STUDY)
Feasibility
Feasible where geological and technical capacity is available

Assessing drought damage and vulnerability

Consists in assessing the vulnerability of a society to drought which can depend on several factors such as population, technology, policy, social behavior, land use patterns, water use, economic development and diversity of economic base and cultural composition.The Disaster Risk Profiles are representations of information regarding a population, place or system’s exposure, sensitivity and resilience to given hazards that can be applied to DRM strategies in a district

Advantages / Benefits
Precise data on people who are vulnerable to drought
Support decision making
Disadvantages
Costly
Contacting local populations is not always easy
Who involved
NGOs
International Organizations
Governments
Information sources
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/cs-risk-reduction-pla…
Evidence of success
Wereda Disaster Risk Profiling Programme (WDRP), Ethiopian Disaster Risk Management commission.
300 Weredas (administrative divisions) out of 670 have completed vulnerability profiles. These profiles rely on data sets which include: meteorological information, demographic information, access to health facilities, and frequency of disaster occurrence. Each Wereda profile is presented in a short summarized report accessible to stakeholders through a digital library (https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/cs-risk-reduction-planning-ethiopia-150714-en.pdf)
Feasibility
Systems are established in areas with no vulnerability profiles

Water reuse and recycling

Reclaimed or recycled water (also called wastewater reuse or water reclamation) is the process of converting wastewater into water that can be reused for other purposes. Reuse may include irrigation of gardens andagricultural fields or replenishing surface water and groundwater (for example, groundwater recharge)

Advantages / Benefits
Low cost
Water conservation
Useful for irrigation
Disadvantages
Low public awareness
Heath risk
Who involved
Private sector
Farmers
Non-governmental organizations
Irrigation companies
Farmers
Information sources
http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/Urban/UrbanEnv-2/9.asp
Evidence of success
The world’s largest and cheapest reverse-osmosis desalination plant in Israel (https://www.technologyreview.com/s/534996/megascale-desalination/)
Feasibility
Wherever wastewater can be converted into water that can be reused for other purposes

Desalination technology

Desalination is a process of removing dissolved salts from seawater to produce fresh water for consumption. There are two major types of desalination technologies around the world, namely membrane desalination and thermal desalination

Advantages / Benefits
Desalination plants can provide drinking water in areas where no natural supply of potable water exists
Disadvantages
High Costs to Build and Operate
Environmental Impact
Who involved
Private water companies
Government water companies
Costs
The installed cost of desalination plants is approximately $1m for every 1,000 cubic meters per day of installed capacity. Therefore, a large scale desalination plant serving 300,000 people typically costs in the region of $100 million. The costs of infrastructure to distribute water must be factored in
Information sources
https://www.lenntech.com/desalination-installations.htm
Evidence of success
In the Philippines, a Comprehensive Land Use Plans (CLUPs) and Comprehensive Development Plans (CDPs) are helping to enhance the knowledge and competencies of farmers through training modules on SLM, primarily through the Farmers Field Schools (https://reliefweb.int/report/philippines/project-launch-implementation-sustainable-land-management-practices-address-land)
Feasibility
The technology is mainly implemented in areas near the coast with high water shortages which impacts agriculture. In particular, desalination technology provides a sustainable source of clean water for the municipal and agricultural needs of the growing population